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<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher">ISPRS-Annals</journal-id>
<journal-title-group>
<journal-title>ISPRS Annals of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences</journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">ISPRS-Annals</abbrev-journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="nlm-ta">ISPRS Ann. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spatial Inf. Sci.</abbrev-journal-title>
</journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="epub">2194-9050</issn>
<publisher><publisher-name>Copernicus Publications</publisher-name>
<publisher-loc>Göttingen, Germany</publisher-loc>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.5194/isprs-annals-X-4-W8-2025-299-2026</article-id>
<title-group>
<article-title>A meta-stacking ensemble framework for landslide susceptibility mapping using LightGBM, Histogram Gradient Boosting and Decision Tree</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Habibi Khouzani</surname>
<given-names>Alireza</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
<sup>1</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Delavar</surname>
<given-names>Mahmoud Reza</given-names>
<ext-link>https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9654-6491</ext-link>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
<sup>1</sup>
</xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
<sup>2</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Moghimi</surname>
<given-names>Armin</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
<sup>3</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Singha</surname>
<given-names>Chiranjit</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">
<sup>4</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Mostafavi</surname>
<given-names>Mir Abolfazl</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">
<sup>5</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
</contrib-group><aff id="aff1">
<label>1</label>
<addr-line>School of Surveying and Geospatial Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran</addr-line>
</aff>
<aff id="aff2">
<label>2</label>
<addr-line>Center of Excellence in Geomatic Eng. in Disaster Management and Land Administration in Smart City Lab., School of Surveying and Geospatial Eng., College of Engineering, University of Tehran, Tehran P.O. Box 14155-6619, Iran</addr-line>
</aff>
<aff id="aff3">
<label>3</label>
<addr-line>Department of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, Geomatics Engineering Faculty, K. N. Toosi University of Technology, Tehran, Iran</addr-line>
</aff>
<aff id="aff4">
<label>4</label>
<addr-line>Department of Agricultural Engineering, Institute of Agriculture, Visva-Bharati University, Sriniketan, Birbhum 731236, West Bengal, India</addr-line>
</aff>
<aff id="aff5">
<label>5</label>
<addr-line>Center of Research in Geospatial Data and Intelligence, Department of Geomatics Sciences, Université Laval, 1055, Avenue du Séminaire, Quebec City, QC, Canada</addr-line>
</aff>
<pub-date pub-type="epub">
<day>29</day>
<month>05</month>
<year>2026</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>X-4/W8-2025</volume>
<fpage>299</fpage>
<lpage>306</lpage>
<permissions>
<copyright-statement>Copyright: &#x000a9; 2026 Alireza Habibi Khouzani et al.</copyright-statement>
<copyright-year>2026</copyright-year>
<license license-type="open-access">
<license-p>This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. To view a copy of this licence, visit <ext-link ext-link-type="uri"  xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/</ext-link></license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<self-uri xlink:href="https://isprs-annals.copernicus.org/articles/X-4-W8-2025/299/2026/isprs-annals-X-4-W8-2025-299-2026.html">This article is available from https://isprs-annals.copernicus.org/articles/X-4-W8-2025/299/2026/isprs-annals-X-4-W8-2025-299-2026.html</self-uri>
<self-uri xlink:href="https://isprs-annals.copernicus.org/articles/X-4-W8-2025/299/2026/isprs-annals-X-4-W8-2025-299-2026.pdf">The full text article is available as a PDF file from https://isprs-annals.copernicus.org/articles/X-4-W8-2025/299/2026/isprs-annals-X-4-W8-2025-299-2026.pdf</self-uri>
<abstract>
<p>Landslides are a major natural hazard in mountainous regions, causing substantial socio-economic losses and posing persistent threats to infrastructure and human safety. This study introduces a Meta-Stacking Ensemble model for advanced landslide susceptibility mapping in the Darjeeling Himalayas, India. The proposed framework integrates LightGBM, Histogram Gradient Boosting, and Decision Tree algorithms through a stacking approach that maintains the original geospatial features while enhancing ensemble diversity. In this way, fourteen key conditioning factors (i.e., topographic, geological, hydrological and anthropogenic variables) were analyzed. Validation using 1830 landslide polygons demonstrated the model&amp;rsquo;s superior predictive performance, achieving an AUC of 0.93, overall accuracy of 87%, Recall of 0.84 and F1-score of 0.72, outperforming all individual base models. Spatial analysis indicated that 22% of the area falls within the &quot;Very High&quot; risk zone, with slope gradient (28% importance) and proximity to tectonic faults (30%) identified as dominant controlling factors. The developed framework produces GIS-compatible susceptibility maps with quantified uncertainty metrics, providing valuable insights to support disaster risk management and mitigation planning.</p>
</abstract>
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