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<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher">ISPRS-Annals</journal-id>
<journal-title-group>
<journal-title>ISPRS Annals of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences</journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">ISPRS-Annals</abbrev-journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="nlm-ta">ISPRS Ann. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spatial Inf. Sci.</abbrev-journal-title>
</journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="epub">2194-9050</issn>
<publisher><publisher-name>Copernicus Publications</publisher-name>
<publisher-loc>Göttingen, Germany</publisher-loc>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.5194/isprs-annals-X-4-W8-2025-557-2026</article-id>
<title-group>
<article-title>Benchmarking Gap-Filling Techniques in Satellite Altimetry-Based Lake Water-Level Time Series</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>MusaHoseini</surname>
<given-names>Ali</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
<sup>1</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Farzaneh</surname>
<given-names>Saeed</given-names>
<ext-link>https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0534-0632</ext-link>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
<sup>1</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Forootan</surname>
<given-names>Ehsan</given-names>
<ext-link>https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3055-041X</ext-link>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
<sup>2</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
</contrib-group><aff id="aff1">
<label>1</label>
<addr-line>School of Surveying and Geospatial Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran</addr-line>
</aff>
<aff id="aff2">
<label>2</label>
<addr-line>Geodesy Group, Department of Sustainability and Planning, Aalborg University, Denmark</addr-line>
</aff>
<pub-date pub-type="epub">
<day>29</day>
<month>05</month>
<year>2026</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>X-4/W8-2025</volume>
<fpage>557</fpage>
<lpage>562</lpage>
<permissions>
<copyright-statement>Copyright: &#x000a9; 2026 Ali MusaHoseini et al.</copyright-statement>
<copyright-year>2026</copyright-year>
<license license-type="open-access">
<license-p>This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. To view a copy of this licence, visit <ext-link ext-link-type="uri"  xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/</ext-link></license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<self-uri xlink:href="https://isprs-annals.copernicus.org/articles/X-4-W8-2025/557/2026/isprs-annals-X-4-W8-2025-557-2026.html">This article is available from https://isprs-annals.copernicus.org/articles/X-4-W8-2025/557/2026/isprs-annals-X-4-W8-2025-557-2026.html</self-uri>
<self-uri xlink:href="https://isprs-annals.copernicus.org/articles/X-4-W8-2025/557/2026/isprs-annals-X-4-W8-2025-557-2026.pdf">The full text article is available as a PDF file from https://isprs-annals.copernicus.org/articles/X-4-W8-2025/557/2026/isprs-annals-X-4-W8-2025-557-2026.pdf</self-uri>
<abstract>
<p>Satellite radar altimetry has significantly enhanced inland water monitoring by providing consistent, long-term lake-level observations. However, these datasets often contain substantial gaps caused by sensor malfunctions, orbital limitations, or retrieval errors, complicating hydrological analyses and downstream applications. This study introduces a robust benchmarking framework designed to systematically evaluate gap-filling techniques in satellite-derived lake water-level records through controlled pseudo-gap injection experiments.&amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;We investigated three large lakes with distinct hydrological behaviours, the Caspian Sea, Lake Superior, and Lake Tanganyika each representing unique temporal dynamics. Synthetic seven-year gaps (2002&amp;ndash;2008) were artificially introduced into complete altimetry datasets, and three sophisticated gap-filling methods were compared: Singular Spectrum Analysis (SSA), Bidirectional Autoregressive (BIAR) models, and Bidirectional Multi-Layer Perceptrons (BiMLP). Method performance was assessed using standard metrics (RMSE, MAE, Bias, and R&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;), alongside statistical properties including variance, skewness, autocorrelation, and stationarity.&amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;BiMLP consistently delivered the highest accuracy across all study lakes, demonstrating exceptional adaptability to both smooth and highly variable signals. SSA performed effectively for lakes exhibiting quasi-periodic behavior, while BIAR showed sensitivity to lag selection and reduced performance under non-stationary conditions. These results emphasize the critical role of bidirectional modeling approaches and rigorous time-series diagnostics in selecting appropriate gap-filling methods for satellite altimetry-based hydrological studies. These findings provide practical guidance for selecting appropriate gap-filling strategies under long data outages in satellite altimetry workflows.</p>
</abstract>
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