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<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher">ISPRS-Annals</journal-id>
<journal-title-group>
<journal-title>ISPRS Annals of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences</journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">ISPRS-Annals</abbrev-journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="nlm-ta">ISPRS Ann. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spatial Inf. Sci.</abbrev-journal-title>
</journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="epub">2194-9050</issn>
<publisher><publisher-name>Copernicus Publications</publisher-name>
<publisher-loc>Göttingen, Germany</publisher-loc>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.5194/isprs-annals-XI-1-2026-447-2026</article-id>
<title-group>
<article-title>Automatic 3D Building Model Generation for Energy Digital Twins</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Roman</surname>
<given-names>Oscar</given-names>
<ext-link>https://orcid.org/0009-0002-3427-4256</ext-link>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
<sup>1</sup>
</xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
<sup>2</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Agugiaro</surname>
<given-names>Giorgio</given-names>
<ext-link>https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2611-4650</ext-link>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
<sup>3</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Arroyo Ohori</surname>
<given-names>Ken</given-names>
<ext-link>https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9863-0152</ext-link>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
<sup>3</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Bassier</surname>
<given-names>Maarten</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">
<sup>4</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Farella</surname>
<given-names>Elisa Mariarosaria</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
<sup>1</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Remondino</surname>
<given-names>Fabio</given-names>
<ext-link>https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6097-5342</ext-link>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
<sup>1</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
</contrib-group><aff id="aff1">
<label>1</label>
<addr-line>3DOM 3D Optical Metrology, Bruno Kessler Foundation, Trento, Italy</addr-line>
</aff>
<aff id="aff2">
<label>2</label>
<addr-line>University of Trento, EICS and DII Department, Trento, Italy</addr-line>
</aff>
<aff id="aff3">
<label>3</label>
<addr-line>3D Geoinformation group, Department of Urbanism, Faculty of Architecture and the Built Environment, Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands</addr-line>
</aff>
<aff id="aff4">
<label>4</label>
<addr-line>Department of Civil Engineering, TC Construction - Geomatics, KU Leuven – Faculty of Engineering Technology, Ghent, Belgium</addr-line>
</aff>
<pub-date pub-type="epub">
<day>03</day>
<month>07</month>
<year>2026</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>XI-1-2026</volume>
<fpage>447</fpage>
<lpage>454</lpage>
<permissions>
<copyright-statement>Copyright: &#x000a9; 2026 Oscar Roman et al.</copyright-statement>
<copyright-year>2026</copyright-year>
<license license-type="open-access">
<license-p>This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. To view a copy of this licence, visit <ext-link ext-link-type="uri"  xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/</ext-link></license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<self-uri xlink:href="https://isprs-annals.copernicus.org/articles/XI-1-2026/447/2026/isprs-annals-XI-1-2026-447-2026.html">This article is available from https://isprs-annals.copernicus.org/articles/XI-1-2026/447/2026/isprs-annals-XI-1-2026-447-2026.html</self-uri>
<self-uri xlink:href="https://isprs-annals.copernicus.org/articles/XI-1-2026/447/2026/isprs-annals-XI-1-2026-447-2026.pdf">The full text article is available as a PDF file from https://isprs-annals.copernicus.org/articles/XI-1-2026/447/2026/isprs-annals-XI-1-2026-447-2026.pdf</self-uri>
<abstract>
<p>Digital Twins in the Architecture, Engineering, and Construction (AEC) domain support monitoring, simulation, and increasing levels of automation in building management across scales. Energy Digital Twins are particularly demanding, requiring (i) simulation-grade geometry and (ii) persistent topology and semantics across monitoring- and scenario-driven updates. This paper proposes a unified multi-representation EDT in which (i) a watertight, solid, and (ii) a topology-preserving B-Rep are co-maintained through a mapping layer that preserves object identity and links geometry to a typed property graph. Building on this, the presented Scan-to-Energy Digital Twin pipeline converts raw point clouds into multi-level EDT instances by integrating Scan-to-BIM reconstruction, topological modelling, semantic enrichment and parser&amp;ndash;transformer&amp;ndash;writer interoperability modules. The graph-backed EDT enables reversible export to epJSON and gbXML (optionally IFC), supporting scenario-based EnergyPlus simulations and incremental retrofit updates, such as insulation thickness and window thermal transmittance value changes. Validation on a set of four buildings achieves 0.86&amp;ndash;0.89 mAPv and schema-valid exports, demonstrating the effectiveness of our end-to-end approach for interoperable energy analysis, monitoring, and operational decision support.</p>
</abstract>
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