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<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher">ISPRS-Annals</journal-id>
<journal-title-group>
<journal-title>ISPRS Annals of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences</journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">ISPRS-Annals</abbrev-journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="nlm-ta">ISPRS Ann. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spatial Inf. Sci.</abbrev-journal-title>
</journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="epub">2194-9050</issn>
<publisher><publisher-name>Copernicus Publications</publisher-name>
<publisher-loc>Göttingen, Germany</publisher-loc>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.5194/isprs-annals-XI-1-2026-91-2026</article-id>
<title-group>
<article-title>Low-cost Terrestrial Laser Scanners for Permanent Monitoring of Beach-Dune Systems</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Hulskemper</surname>
<given-names>Daan</given-names>
<ext-link>https://orcid.org/0009-0006-0949-5726</ext-link>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
<sup>1</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Weiser</surname>
<given-names>Hannah</given-names>
<ext-link>https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3256-7311</ext-link>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
<sup>2</sup>
</xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
<sup>3</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Tabernig</surname>
<given-names>Ronald</given-names>
<ext-link>https://orcid.org/0009-0002-3700-899X</ext-link>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
<sup>2</sup>
</xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
<sup>3</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Höfle</surname>
<given-names>Bernhard</given-names>
<ext-link>https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5849-1461</ext-link>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
<sup>2</sup>
</xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
<sup>3</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>de Jong</surname>
<given-names>Thomas</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
<sup>1</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Lindenbergh</surname>
<given-names>Roderik</given-names>
<ext-link>https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8655-5266</ext-link>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
<sup>1</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
</contrib-group><aff id="aff1">
<label>1</label>
<addr-line>Dept. of Geoscience and Remote Sensing, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Geoscience, Delft University of Technology, The Netherlands</addr-line>
</aff>
<aff id="aff2">
<label>2</label>
<addr-line>3DGeo Research Group, Institute of Geography, Heidelberg University, Germany</addr-line>
</aff>
<aff id="aff3">
<label>3</label>
<addr-line>Interdisciplinary Center for Scientific Computing (IWR), Heidelberg University, Germany</addr-line>
</aff>
<pub-date pub-type="epub">
<day>03</day>
<month>07</month>
<year>2026</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>XI-1-2026</volume>
<fpage>91</fpage>
<lpage>99</lpage>
<permissions>
<copyright-statement>Copyright: &#x000a9; 2026 Daan Hulskemper et al.</copyright-statement>
<copyright-year>2026</copyright-year>
<license license-type="open-access">
<license-p>This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. To view a copy of this licence, visit <ext-link ext-link-type="uri"  xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/</ext-link></license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<self-uri xlink:href="https://isprs-annals.copernicus.org/articles/XI-1-2026/91/2026/isprs-annals-XI-1-2026-91-2026.html">This article is available from https://isprs-annals.copernicus.org/articles/XI-1-2026/91/2026/isprs-annals-XI-1-2026-91-2026.html</self-uri>
<self-uri xlink:href="https://isprs-annals.copernicus.org/articles/XI-1-2026/91/2026/isprs-annals-XI-1-2026-91-2026.pdf">The full text article is available as a PDF file from https://isprs-annals.copernicus.org/articles/XI-1-2026/91/2026/isprs-annals-XI-1-2026-91-2026.pdf</self-uri>
<abstract>
<p>Permanent laser scanning (PLS) is an effective tool for near-continuous monitoring of topographical changes in beach-dune systems. While PLS systems were traditionally costly, the emergence of affordable LiDAR sensors enables larger-scale setups with multiple scanners or sites. However, the different characteristics compared to high-end devices, create challenges for one-on-one replacement. To assess how low-cost sensors can replace high-end sensors, we compare the performance of a setup with several low-cost Livox AVIA sensors to a single high-end RIEGL VZ-2000i sensor in its ability to capture an embryonic dune field with large variation in topography. This is evaluated using HELIOS++ virtual laser scanning (VLS). To also assess the representativeness of the simulations, we further compare the VLS to real-world measurements with the Livox AVIA. Based on a VLS setup with six AVIAs mounted on tripods at 2 m above ground, a coverage of 52% can be obtained, which is similar to the coverage of a single RIEGL VZ-2000i on a tower 8 m high. The real-world experiments confirm the VLS results with a slightly lower point cloud coverage of 42%. Furthermore, the effective range of the Livox AVIA in a beach-dune system lies around 100-150 m. At larger ranges, only pulses at high incidence angles (angle between surface and incoming beam, &amp;gt;20&lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;) are registered at the scanner. The variations in coverage between the VLS and real-world scans highlight the need for careful consideration of the occlusion potential of different representations of the topography, beam divergence shapes, and the moisture conditions.</p>
</abstract>
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