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<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher">ISPRS-Annals</journal-id>
<journal-title-group>
<journal-title>ISPRS Annals of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences</journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">ISPRS-Annals</abbrev-journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="nlm-ta">ISPRS Ann. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spatial Inf. Sci.</abbrev-journal-title>
</journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="epub">2194-9050</issn>
<publisher><publisher-name>Copernicus Publications</publisher-name>
<publisher-loc>Göttingen, Germany</publisher-loc>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.5194/isprs-annals-XI-2-2026-127-2026</article-id>
<title-group>
<article-title>Multi-Source Fusion of Roof Skeletons, LiDAR and Street-View Imagery for Semi-Automated LoD-2 Building Modelling</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Rajan</surname>
<given-names>Vaibhav</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
<sup>1</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Münster</surname>
<given-names>Sander</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
<sup>1</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Bruschke</surname>
<given-names>Jonas</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
<sup>1</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Maiwald</surname>
<given-names>Ferdinand</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
<sup>2</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
</contrib-group><aff id="aff1">
<label>1</label>
<addr-line>Digital Humanities, Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena, Germany</addr-line>
</aff>
<aff id="aff2">
<label>2</label>
<addr-line>Chair of Optical 3D-Metrology, TUD Dresden University of Technology, Germany</addr-line>
</aff>
<pub-date pub-type="epub">
<day>03</day>
<month>07</month>
<year>2026</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>XI-2-2026</volume>
<fpage>127</fpage>
<lpage>135</lpage>
<permissions>
<copyright-statement>Copyright: &#x000a9; 2026 Vaibhav Rajan et al.</copyright-statement>
<copyright-year>2026</copyright-year>
<license license-type="open-access">
<license-p>This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. To view a copy of this licence, visit <ext-link ext-link-type="uri"  xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/</ext-link></license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<self-uri xlink:href="https://isprs-annals.copernicus.org/articles/XI-2-2026/127/2026/isprs-annals-XI-2-2026-127-2026.html">This article is available from https://isprs-annals.copernicus.org/articles/XI-2-2026/127/2026/isprs-annals-XI-2-2026-127-2026.html</self-uri>
<self-uri xlink:href="https://isprs-annals.copernicus.org/articles/XI-2-2026/127/2026/isprs-annals-XI-2-2026-127-2026.pdf">The full text article is available as a PDF file from https://isprs-annals.copernicus.org/articles/XI-2-2026/127/2026/isprs-annals-XI-2-2026-127-2026.pdf</self-uri>
<abstract>
<p>LoD-2 building models are more informative and practically more useful than LoD-1 representations because they capture the roof structure that defines the essential three-dimensional form of a building. They are important for applications such as urban planning, environmental simulation, and digital heritage. Although recent roof shape extraction methods can derive vectorised 2D roof structures from very-high-resolution imagery, transforming these image-based representations into fully textured 3D buildings remains challenging. In this paper, we present a semi-automated LoD-2 reconstruction pipeline that integrates HEAT-derived roof geometry with airborne LiDAR, satellite and Google Street View imagery. The 2D outputs are reprojected into map coordinates, fused with LiDAR through a two-stage roof reconstruction strategy to derive roof shapes and combined with an adaptive, LiDAR-based ground base initialisation to create a complete 3D wireframe. Roofs are textured using VHR orthophotos while the walls are textured via a process of Street View panorama selection, geometric filtering, Mask2Former segmentation, and homography rectification. Across a large-scale evaluation on 1000 buildings, the proposed two-stage reconstruction strategy improves geometric agreement with the LiDAR reference data achieving a roof-surface RMSE of 0.445 m. The wall texturing process produces convincing facades when suitable panoramas are available. While minor challenges such as sensitivities to LiDAR outliers, incomplete roof geometry, and facade occlusions persist, this pipeline effectively bridges 2D roof parsing and textured LoD-2 model generation, providing a robust and scalable foundation for advancing toward fully automated workflows.</p>
</abstract>
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