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<journal-meta>
<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher">ISPRS-Annals</journal-id>
<journal-title-group>
<journal-title>ISPRS Annals of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences</journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">ISPRS-Annals</abbrev-journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="nlm-ta">ISPRS Ann. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spatial Inf. Sci.</abbrev-journal-title>
</journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="epub">2194-9050</issn>
<publisher><publisher-name>Copernicus Publications</publisher-name>
<publisher-loc>Göttingen, Germany</publisher-loc>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.5194/isprs-annals-XI-2-2026-217-2026</article-id>
<title-group>
<article-title>EOGS++: Earth Observation Gaussian Splatting with Internal Camera Refinement and Direct Panchromatic Rendering</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Bournez</surname>
<given-names>Pierrick</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
<sup>1</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Savant Aira</surname>
<given-names>Luca</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
<sup>2</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Ehret</surname>
<given-names>Thibaud</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
<sup>3</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Facciolo</surname>
<given-names>Gabriele</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
<sup>1</sup>
</xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">
<sup>4</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
</contrib-group><aff id="aff1">
<label>1</label>
<addr-line>Universite Paris-Saclay, CNRS, ENS Paris-Saclay, Centre Borelli, Gif-sur-Yvette, France</addr-line>
</aff>
<aff id="aff2">
<label>2</label>
<addr-line>Politecnico di Torino, Corso Duca degli Abruzzi, Torino TO, Italia</addr-line>
</aff>
<aff id="aff3">
<label>3</label>
<addr-line>AMIAD, Pôle Recherche, France</addr-line>
</aff>
<aff id="aff4">
<label>4</label>
<addr-line>Institut Universitaire de France</addr-line>
</aff>
<pub-date pub-type="epub">
<day>03</day>
<month>07</month>
<year>2026</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>XI-2-2026</volume>
<fpage>217</fpage>
<lpage>224</lpage>
<permissions>
<copyright-statement>Copyright: &#x000a9; 2026 Pierrick Bournez et al.</copyright-statement>
<copyright-year>2026</copyright-year>
<license license-type="open-access">
<license-p>This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. To view a copy of this licence, visit <ext-link ext-link-type="uri"  xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/</ext-link></license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<self-uri xlink:href="https://isprs-annals.copernicus.org/articles/XI-2-2026/217/2026/isprs-annals-XI-2-2026-217-2026.html">This article is available from https://isprs-annals.copernicus.org/articles/XI-2-2026/217/2026/isprs-annals-XI-2-2026-217-2026.html</self-uri>
<self-uri xlink:href="https://isprs-annals.copernicus.org/articles/XI-2-2026/217/2026/isprs-annals-XI-2-2026-217-2026.pdf">The full text article is available as a PDF file from https://isprs-annals.copernicus.org/articles/XI-2-2026/217/2026/isprs-annals-XI-2-2026-217-2026.pdf</self-uri>
<abstract>
<p>Recently, 3D Gaussian Splatting has been introduced as a compelling alternative to NeRF for Earth observation, offering competitive reconstruction quality with significantly reduced training times. In this work, we extend the Earth Observation Gaussian Splatting (EOGS) framework to propose EOGS++, a novel method tailored for satellite imagery that directly operates on raw high-resolution panchromatic data without requiring external preprocessing. Furthermore, leveraging optical flow techniques we embed bundle adjustment directly within the training process, avoiding reliance on external optimization tools while improving camera pose estimation. We also introduce several improvements to the original implementation, including early stopping and TSDF post-processing, all contributing to sharper reconstructions and better geometric accuracy. Experiments on the IARPA 2016 and DFC2019 datasets demonstrate that EOGS++ achieves state-of-the-art performance in terms of reconstruction quality outperforming the original EOGS method and other NeRF-based methods while maintaining the computational advantages of Gaussian Splatting. Our model demonstrates an improvement from 1.33 to 1.19 mean MAE errors on buildings compared to the original EOGS models. The code is publicly available at &lt;code&gt;https://gardiens.github.io/EOGS2&lt;/code&gt;.</p>
</abstract>
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