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<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher">ISPRS-Annals</journal-id>
<journal-title-group>
<journal-title>ISPRS Annals of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences</journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">ISPRS-Annals</abbrev-journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="nlm-ta">ISPRS Ann. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spatial Inf. Sci.</abbrev-journal-title>
</journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="epub">2194-9050</issn>
<publisher><publisher-name>Copernicus Publications</publisher-name>
<publisher-loc>Göttingen, Germany</publisher-loc>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.5194/isprs-annals-XI-3-2026-117-2026</article-id>
<title-group>
<article-title>Combining specialized Sentinel-2 time series features with AlphaEarth Foundations for forest type mapping</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Hiebl</surname>
<given-names>Benedikt</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
<sup>1</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Alessi</surname>
<given-names>Nicola</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
<sup>2</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Calvia</surname>
<given-names>Giacomo</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
<sup>3</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Bricca</surname>
<given-names>Alessandro</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
<sup>3</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Bonari</surname>
<given-names>Gianmaria</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">
<sup>4</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Zangari</surname>
<given-names>Giulio</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
<sup>3</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Zerbe</surname>
<given-names>Stefan</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">
<sup>5</sup>
</xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6">
<sup>6</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Rutzinger</surname>
<given-names>Martin</given-names>
<ext-link>https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6628-4681</ext-link>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
<sup>1</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
</contrib-group><aff id="aff1">
<label>1</label>
<addr-line>Department of Geography, University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria</addr-line>
</aff>
<aff id="aff2">
<label>2</label>
<addr-line>Italian Institute for Environmental Protection and Research, Rome, Italy</addr-line>
</aff>
<aff id="aff3">
<label>3</label>
<addr-line>Faculty of Agricultural, Environmental and Food Sciences, Free University of Bozen-Bolzano, Bozen, Italy</addr-line>
</aff>
<aff id="aff4">
<label>4</label>
<addr-line>Department of Life Sciences, University of Siena, Siena, Italy</addr-line>
</aff>
<aff id="aff5">
<label>5</label>
<addr-line>Faculty of Resource Management, University of Applied Sciences and Arts (HAWK), Göttingen, Germany</addr-line>
</aff>
<aff id="aff6">
<label>6</label>
<addr-line>Institute of Geography, University of Hildesheim, Hildesheim, Germany</addr-line>
</aff>
<pub-date pub-type="epub">
<day>08</day>
<month>07</month>
<year>2026</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>XI-3-2026</volume>
<fpage>117</fpage>
<lpage>124</lpage>
<permissions>
<copyright-statement>Copyright: &#x000a9; 2026 Benedikt Hiebl et al.</copyright-statement>
<copyright-year>2026</copyright-year>
<license license-type="open-access">
<license-p>This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. To view a copy of this licence, visit <ext-link ext-link-type="uri"  xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/</ext-link></license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<self-uri xlink:href="https://isprs-annals.copernicus.org/articles/XI-3-2026/117/2026/isprs-annals-XI-3-2026-117-2026.html">This article is available from https://isprs-annals.copernicus.org/articles/XI-3-2026/117/2026/isprs-annals-XI-3-2026-117-2026.html</self-uri>
<self-uri xlink:href="https://isprs-annals.copernicus.org/articles/XI-3-2026/117/2026/isprs-annals-XI-3-2026-117-2026.pdf">The full text article is available as a PDF file from https://isprs-annals.copernicus.org/articles/XI-3-2026/117/2026/isprs-annals-XI-3-2026-117-2026.pdf</self-uri>
<abstract>
<p>Accurate mapping of forest types and vegetation characteristics is essential for monitoring biodiversity and forest dynamics. Traditional Deep Learning (DL) models trained on Sentinel-2 time series achieve high performance, but require extensive preprocessing and sensor-related fine-tuning. In this study, we evaluate the recently introduced AlphaEarth Foundations (AEF) embeddings, which is a global, multi-modal feature representation of the earths surface, for forest mapping in Italy. We compare a) a Random Forest model trained on Sentinel-2 and climate time series features, b) a Multi-Layer Perceptron trained on AEF, c) a Time-Series Transformer trained on Sentinel-2 and climate annual time series, and d) a Cross-Attention fusion model combining both feature sets. Using 5-fold cross-validation in a regression and a classification task on two datasets (evergreen broad-leaved tree cover ETC, forest vegetation type FVT) we find that the combined model consistently outperforms the single-source approaches (RMSE = 0.161, Acc = 0.757). AEF-based models achieve comparable accuracy to the Sentinel-2-based models, while reducing extensive time series preprocessing and training time by an order of magnitude. Feature attribution using integrated gradients reveals that AEF provides stable baseline representations, while Sentinel-2 inputs add phenology-related detail. The results show, that integrating generalized embeddings with specialized spectral-temporal features improves predictive performance for forest mapping.</p>
</abstract>
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