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<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher">ISPRS-Annals</journal-id>
<journal-title-group>
<journal-title>ISPRS Annals of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences</journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">ISPRS-Annals</abbrev-journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="nlm-ta">ISPRS Ann. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spatial Inf. Sci.</abbrev-journal-title>
</journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="epub">2194-9050</issn>
<publisher><publisher-name>Copernicus Publications</publisher-name>
<publisher-loc>Göttingen, Germany</publisher-loc>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.5194/isprs-annals-XI-3-2026-179-2026</article-id>
<title-group>
<article-title>RefineNet: a Confidence-aware Deep Online Learning Framework to Refine Real-world Point Cloud Semantic Segmentation</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Madanu</surname>
<given-names>Sharath Chandra</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
<sup>1</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Du</surname>
<given-names>Shenglan</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
<sup>1</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Stoter</surname>
<given-names>Jantien</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
<sup>1</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>van der Heide</surname>
<given-names>Daan</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
<sup>1</sup>
</xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
<sup>2</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
</contrib-group><aff id="aff1">
<label>1</label>
<addr-line>3D Geoinformation Group, Delft University of Technology, Julianalaan 134, Delft, the Netherlands</addr-line>
</aff>
<aff id="aff2">
<label>2</label>
<addr-line>Rijkswaterstaat, Derde Werelddreef 1, Delft, the Netherlands</addr-line>
</aff>
<pub-date pub-type="epub">
<day>08</day>
<month>07</month>
<year>2026</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>XI-3-2026</volume>
<fpage>179</fpage>
<lpage>185</lpage>
<permissions>
<copyright-statement>Copyright: &#x000a9; 2026 Sharath Chandra Madanu et al.</copyright-statement>
<copyright-year>2026</copyright-year>
<license license-type="open-access">
<license-p>This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. To view a copy of this licence, visit <ext-link ext-link-type="uri"  xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/</ext-link></license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<self-uri xlink:href="https://isprs-annals.copernicus.org/articles/XI-3-2026/179/2026/isprs-annals-XI-3-2026-179-2026.html">This article is available from https://isprs-annals.copernicus.org/articles/XI-3-2026/179/2026/isprs-annals-XI-3-2026-179-2026.html</self-uri>
<self-uri xlink:href="https://isprs-annals.copernicus.org/articles/XI-3-2026/179/2026/isprs-annals-XI-3-2026-179-2026.pdf">The full text article is available as a PDF file from https://isprs-annals.copernicus.org/articles/XI-3-2026/179/2026/isprs-annals-XI-3-2026-179-2026.pdf</self-uri>
<abstract>
<p>Accurate interpretation and segmentation of 3D point clouds in real-world urban environments is a critical challenge in geospatial analysis, particularly due to the complexity of real-world scenes, inevitable data uncertainties, and potential annotation errors. This paper proposes a confidence-aware deep learning framework to refine the segmentation accuracy of real-world point cloud data. By incorporating multi-source information, such as aerial imagery, and embedding geospatial prior knowledge, this framework models data uncertainty through point-wise confidence scores. Besides, we design an iterative online learning strategy, allowing the network to improve both its predictions and the quality of training labels. Extensive experiments on large-scale airborne laser-scanned data demonstrate that our framework effectively enhances training data by reducing label noise and improving annotation quality, which leads to more robust, generalizable model performance. Our source code is publicly available at &lt;code&gt;https://github.com/AutumnMoon00/RefineNet&lt;/code&gt;.</p>
</abstract>
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