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<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher">ISPRS-Annals</journal-id>
<journal-title-group>
<journal-title>ISPRS Annals of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences</journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">ISPRS-Annals</abbrev-journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="nlm-ta">ISPRS Ann. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spatial Inf. Sci.</abbrev-journal-title>
</journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="epub">2194-9050</issn>
<publisher><publisher-name>Copernicus Publications</publisher-name>
<publisher-loc>Göttingen, Germany</publisher-loc>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.5194/isprs-annals-XI-M-1-2026-71-2026</article-id>
<title-group>
<article-title>Automatic DEM-infused 2D to 3D LoD1 Urban Morphology Python Framework</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Yasser</surname>
<given-names>Omar</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
<sup>1</sup>
</xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
<sup>2</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Kalantari</surname>
<given-names>Mohsen</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
<sup>3</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Zahidi</surname>
<given-names>Izni</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
<sup>1</sup>
</xref>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
<sup>2</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
</contrib-group><aff id="aff1">
<label>1</label>
<addr-line>Department of Civil Engineering, School of Engineering, Monash University Malaysia</addr-line>
</aff>
<aff id="aff2">
<label>2</label>
<addr-line>Monash Climate-Resilient Infrastructure Research Hub (M-CRInfra), School of Engineering, Monash University Malaysia</addr-line>
</aff>
<aff id="aff3">
<label>3</label>
<addr-line>School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of New South Wales (UNSW), Sydney, Australia</addr-line>
</aff>
<pub-date pub-type="epub">
<day>02</day>
<month>07</month>
<year>2026</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>XI-M-1-2026</volume>
<fpage>71</fpage>
<lpage>77</lpage>
<permissions>
<copyright-statement>Copyright: &#x000a9; 2026 Omar Yasser et al.</copyright-statement>
<copyright-year>2026</copyright-year>
<license license-type="open-access">
<license-p>This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. To view a copy of this licence, visit <ext-link ext-link-type="uri"  xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/</ext-link></license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<self-uri xlink:href="https://isprs-annals.copernicus.org/articles/XI-M-1-2026/71/2026/isprs-annals-XI-M-1-2026-71-2026.html">This article is available from https://isprs-annals.copernicus.org/articles/XI-M-1-2026/71/2026/isprs-annals-XI-M-1-2026-71-2026.html</self-uri>
<self-uri xlink:href="https://isprs-annals.copernicus.org/articles/XI-M-1-2026/71/2026/isprs-annals-XI-M-1-2026-71-2026.pdf">The full text article is available as a PDF file from https://isprs-annals.copernicus.org/articles/XI-M-1-2026/71/2026/isprs-annals-XI-M-1-2026-71-2026.pdf</self-uri>
<abstract>
<p>The generation of 3D urban morphology models from 2D urban morphology maps has been widely explored. Traditional methods use modelling software, such as Rhino, which lack georeferencing, elevation, and automation. In this study, we developed an open-source Python framework for automatic generation of 3D city blocks, including elevation, from 2D colour-graded building heightmaps and urban morphology input. We utilised the UT-GLOBUS and GlobalBuildingAtlas building datasets to generate heightmaps and retrieved other urban morphology features, such as waterbodies, parks, roads, and trees, from OpenStreetMap to form the input raster patches. The framework generates height and colour maps based on the input features, which are extruded in 3D and exported into multiple standard 3D GIS formats such as CityGML and CityJSON. Six global cities: Sydney, New York, London, Rio de Janeiro, Hong Kong, and Singapore, were modelled to demonstrate the framework&amp;rsquo;s applicability. Validation includes qualitative comparison with Google Earth 3D data and quantitative comparison against official LiDAR-derived DSMs for four cities. Quantitative results show moderate height errors and good spatial agreement of building footprints, reflecting the expected differences between simplified LoD1 block models and detailed DSM representations. Our framework results show promising potential in the field of 2D to 3D mapping for the creation of 3D city models for urban climate modelling and environmental analysis. The generated 3D models can be downloaded at https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17620303.</p>
</abstract>
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