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<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher">ISPRS-Annals</journal-id>
<journal-title-group>
<journal-title>ISPRS Annals of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences</journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">ISPRS-Annals</abbrev-journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="nlm-ta">ISPRS Ann. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spatial Inf. Sci.</abbrev-journal-title>
</journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="epub">2194-9050</issn>
<publisher><publisher-name>Copernicus Publications</publisher-name>
<publisher-loc>Göttingen, Germany</publisher-loc>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.5194/isprs-annals-XII-4-W1-2026-203-2026</article-id>
<title-group>
<article-title>SVI2LoD3: Agent-Driven Reconstruction of LoD3 Façade Openings in Semantic 3D City Models from Volunteered Street View Imagery using Large Language and Visual Models</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Kanna</surname>
<given-names>Elmehdi</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
<sup>1</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Arzoumanidis</surname>
<given-names>Lukas</given-names>
<ext-link>https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6668-1695</ext-link>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
<sup>1</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Nguyen</surname>
<given-names>Huynh Duc An Son</given-names>
<ext-link>https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8711-1587</ext-link>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
<sup>1</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Dehbi</surname>
<given-names>Youness</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
<sup>1</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
</contrib-group><aff id="aff1">
<label>1</label>
<addr-line>Computational Methods Lab, HafenCity University, Hamburg, Germany</addr-line>
</aff>
<pub-date pub-type="epub">
<day>28</day>
<month>09</month>
<year>2026</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>XII-4/W1-2026</volume>
<fpage>203</fpage>
<lpage>210</lpage>
<permissions>
<copyright-statement>Copyright: &#x000a9; 2026 Elmehdi Kanna et al.</copyright-statement>
<copyright-year>2026</copyright-year>
<license license-type="open-access">
<license-p>This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. To view a copy of this licence, visit <ext-link ext-link-type="uri"  xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/</ext-link></license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<self-uri xlink:href="https://isprs-annals.copernicus.org/articles/XII-4-W1-2026/203/2026/isprs-annals-XII-4-W1-2026-203-2026.html">This article is available from https://isprs-annals.copernicus.org/articles/XII-4-W1-2026/203/2026/isprs-annals-XII-4-W1-2026-203-2026.html</self-uri>
<self-uri xlink:href="https://isprs-annals.copernicus.org/articles/XII-4-W1-2026/203/2026/isprs-annals-XII-4-W1-2026-203-2026.pdf">The full text article is available as a PDF file from https://isprs-annals.copernicus.org/articles/XII-4-W1-2026/203/2026/isprs-annals-XII-4-W1-2026-203-2026.pdf</self-uri>
<abstract>
<p>This paper presents an end-to-end, agent-driven pipeline for the LoD3 reconstruction of fa&amp;ccedil;ade openings in 3D city models, producing directly usable CityGML-conform outputs. In contrast to existing approaches that rely on supervised semantic segmentation and therefore require large amounts of manually annotated training data, the proposed method employs a zero-shot segmentation strategy. This substantially reduces the annotation effort while still achieving strong performance in our benchmark on the eTRIMS dataset. A further key contribution is the enforcement of correct partonomic hierarchies, thereby producing CityGMLconform LoD3 building models. Beyond the reconstruction pipeline itself, this work also introduces a novel evaluation metric for fa&amp;ccedil;ade reconstruction, termed Facade Feature Distance (FFD). Unlike conventional metrics such as mIoU or FRDS, which assess similarity primarily through pixel-wise overlap, FFD measures distance in a high-level feature space derived from a vision transformer. In doing so, it captures both semantic correctness and architectural layout, providing a more suitable assessment of fa&amp;ccedil;ade reconstruction quality. The proposed pipeline and evaluation strategy together offer a practical and scalable contribution toward the automated generation and analysis of semantically enriched 3D city models. The developed code is published at: &lt;code&gt;https://github.com/hcu-cml/citydb-SVI2LoD3-ai&lt;/code&gt;.</p>
</abstract>
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