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<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher">ISPRS-Annals</journal-id>
<journal-title-group>
<journal-title>ISPRS Annals of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences</journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">ISPRS-Annals</abbrev-journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="nlm-ta">ISPRS Ann. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spatial Inf. Sci.</abbrev-journal-title>
</journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="epub">2194-9050</issn>
<publisher><publisher-name>Copernicus Publications</publisher-name>
<publisher-loc>Göttingen, Germany</publisher-loc>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.5194/isprs-annals-XII-4-W1-2026-259-2026</article-id>
<title-group>
<article-title>Bridging Observed and Modeled Cities: Multi-Band Consensus Footprints for MLS-to-CityGML Registration in Urban Environments</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Ortiz Rincón</surname>
<given-names>Marco Antonio</given-names>
<ext-link>https://orcid.org/0009-0000-2786-2768</ext-link>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
<sup>1</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Yang</surname>
<given-names>Yihui</given-names>
<ext-link>https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0646-1073</ext-link>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
<sup>1</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" xlink:type="simple"><name name-style="western"><surname>Holst</surname>
<given-names>Christoph</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
<sup>1</sup>
</xref>
</contrib>
</contrib-group><aff id="aff1">
<label>1</label>
<addr-line>Chair of Engineering Geodesy, TUM School of Engineering and Design, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany</addr-line>
</aff>
<pub-date pub-type="epub">
<day>28</day>
<month>09</month>
<year>2026</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>XII-4/W1-2026</volume>
<fpage>259</fpage>
<lpage>266</lpage>
<permissions>
<copyright-statement>Copyright: &#x000a9; 2026 Marco Antonio Ortiz Rincón et al.</copyright-statement>
<copyright-year>2026</copyright-year>
<license license-type="open-access">
<license-p>This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. To view a copy of this licence, visit <ext-link ext-link-type="uri"  xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/</ext-link></license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<self-uri xlink:href="https://isprs-annals.copernicus.org/articles/XII-4-W1-2026/259/2026/isprs-annals-XII-4-W1-2026-259-2026.html">This article is available from https://isprs-annals.copernicus.org/articles/XII-4-W1-2026/259/2026/isprs-annals-XII-4-W1-2026-259-2026.html</self-uri>
<self-uri xlink:href="https://isprs-annals.copernicus.org/articles/XII-4-W1-2026/259/2026/isprs-annals-XII-4-W1-2026-259-2026.pdf">The full text article is available as a PDF file from https://isprs-annals.copernicus.org/articles/XII-4-W1-2026/259/2026/isprs-annals-XII-4-W1-2026-259-2026.pdf</self-uri>
<abstract>
<p>This paper presents a multimodal 3D data fusion workflow tailored for registering mobile laser scanning (MLS) point clouds to CityGML semantic building models (MLS-to-CityGML) in urban street environments. The proposed method first extracts stable footprint features from MLS fragments using a multi-band consensus filtering strategy, which suppresses noise and non-building elements in MLS observations. In parallel, 2D target features are derived from CityGML Level of Detail 2 (LoD2) building geometry by extracting and cleaning ground-contact footprint segments. The resulting representations are aligned in 2D using raster-based distance-transform matching, and the estimated pose is subsequently transferred to 3D through vertical alignment and refined using the plane-voxel generalized iterative closest point (PV-GICP) algorithm. Finally, MLS drift analysis is conducted based on adaptive fragmentation. Evaluation across five urban scenarios shows that the proposed multi-band consensus filter provides reliable coarse initialization. The mean horizontal residual of all evaluated scenes achieves 0.041m after coarse registration, while subsequent PV-GICP refinement further reduces the overall mean residual from 0.065m to 0.015 m. The experimental results demonstrate the workflow as a robust coarse-to-fine registration strategy for structured urban environments, thereby providing a reliable georeferencing basis for updating city-scale semantic models.</p>
</abstract>
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